It is hardly possible to answer exactly what the spiritual life of ancient people of the Baltic lands was like... Balts did not create their own writing; thus, they did not leave their sacred texts. The worldview, religion, and mythology of Balts can be judged from relatively small descriptions, chronicles, annals, and travel stories of neighbouring countries. After Christianity took hold, many things of the old worldview and religion turned into folk beliefs and customs, remained as fragments in stories, legends, fairy tales, songs, small folklore, music or dances. There is a lack of data to reconstruct the spiritual life of Balts in detail; however, certain aspects are still subordinate to the understanding of the person living today...
The first people who came after the Ice Age brought the whole of formed images about the world, life, environment with them; in other words, they had their own worldview. This human culture was characterized by an animistic belief with a totem – the mythical guardian of the ancestral tribe – in its centre. It is generally considered to be an animal; less often, a plant or some natural phenomenon. The meat of the totemic beast could only be eaten after performing a complex apology ritual. The totem was chosen according to certain characteristics of the animal: strength, speed, fierceness. The reindeer, which provided both meat and raw material for clothes and tools, was considered the most desirable animal. As the climate was changing, the reindeer in the human mythological self-awareness was replaced by the moose, the bear. People of the prehistoric community used to distinguish only two seasons – warm and cold. In the cold season, the moose reigned in the forest; and in the summer, the bear.
The people of the primitive community understood the world mythologically. Myths were created about the animal and plant becoming a totem – stories that were sacredly believed. Beliefs, mythology are accompanied by a ritual. “The ritual is led by an oracle. His duties can also be performed by the chief of the tribe, who has accumulated both secular and spiritual power in his hands. Based on myths, there must be a certain order in the society and in nature. The order is supported by the periodically repeated ritual. <...> Seeking to show how he moves into the sacred time and space, the oracle behaves in an unusual way: he sings out the words, moves in unnatural steps and the like. This is precisely why the ritual has an artistic form expressed in music, song, and dance” (Lietuva iki Mindaugo, 2003).
The Baltic worldview often reflects the same or similar life realities of Lithuanians, Latvians, and Old Prussians, and scientists notice more commonalities than differences, especially due to the existence of a former common Indo-European basis. Since scientists have not accepted a unified model of the Baltic mythology, this work is mainly based on the scientific papers of G. Beresnevičius, V. Vaitkevičius, N. Vėlius, R. Račiūnaitė, D. Senvaitytė, A. Vaicekauskas, N. Laurinkienė, P. Šmitas and other researchers.
THE ORIGIN OF THE WORLD AND MAN. THE COSMOGONIC MYTH
Creation of the world takes place in a certain sequence. Some legends explain that first, the heaven was created and then, the earth appeared. It is explained elsewhere that the earth was separated from water and then, its terrain began to be created. However, most legends reveal one or the other element of creation of the world, although only their entirety allows us to perceive the image of the creation process (Račiūnaitė, Senvaitytė, Vaicekauskas, 2001).
Legends depict the appearance of celestial luminaries. When it was dark everywhere, the blacksmith forged the sun and threw it into the sky; the moon is hardly mentioned at all. The appearance of the earth is explained in various ways. It was imagined that the earth was held by a giant fish surrounded by water. According to other versions, the earth is the daughter of the sun and the moon. The sun wanted to protect the earth, but the moon did not agree and sued the sun. Perkūnas (the god of thunder) decided that the sun would protect the earth during the day; and the moon with her sister stars, at night. Thus, the day was divided into light and dark times. The story about Dievas (God) and Velnias (the god of the underworld) sailing in a boat and the creation of the world is also characteristic. The picture of God the Creator in legends is quite abstract, almost not detailed. It is emphasized that Velnias helped God to create the world, only the former used to turn his look at the things that are not so useful to the man. Several legends mention that the world was created not by God, but by Perkūnas. Rituals and spoken texts used to resemble cosmogony. Typical images were: the world tree, deer, bridge (see Mitologijos enciklopedija, 2, 1999; Račiūnaitė, Senvaitytė, Vaicekauskas, 2001). The cosmogonic myth pertains to rituals and ceremonials of festivals. The celebration of the New Year is considered to be related to the conception of cosmogony. “The man of ancient eras perceived the cosmos as a living person who was born, developed and died on the last day of the year in order to be reborn again in the New Year. The creation of the world itself was perceived by the mythical consciousness as a constantly repeated process” (Beresnevičius, 2004).
ANTHROPOGONY
The stories of etiological legends about the man moulded from clay are almost indistinguishable from the biblical story. It may be that Christianity had an influence on this, but the version that Lithuanians interpreted the origin of the man in this way cannot be ruled out. It is recorded in the legends that the man could also appear after God spat or after a drop fell while he was washing himself. At this point, it is worth paying attention to the fact that saliva was considered a substance of God, falling on water and the earth (see Mitologijos enciklopedija, 2, 1999; Račiūnaitė, Senvaitytė, Vaicekauskas, 2001).
THE WORLD TREE
The person perceives the surrounding world as a whole. “The axis of the world model formed in the worldview of peoples of Indo-European origin is the World Tree (also called the Cosmic Tree or the Tree of Life). This is a very polysemantic mythical image. First, established oppositions <...> called antinomies can be envisaged in it. They can be noticed by the look of the person who is beginning to explore nature: high – low, light – dark, day – night, summer – winter, warm – cold, the sun is rising – sunset, life – death” (Lietuva iki Mindaugo, 2003).
The World Tree connects the individual parts of the world into a whole. The top of the tree coincides with the sky; the trunk, with the earth; and the roots, with the underworld. Thus, respectively, luminaries, birds are in the branches of the tree, beasts and people circle around the trunk, and reptiles, fish and the like are at the roots. This is a classic diagram of the World Tree (see Usačivaitė, 1992).
“The World Tree includes the traditional Lithuanian roadside chapel pillars and roofed pillar type sculptures. These sites evolved from the sacrificial pillar expressing the idea of the road to the metaphysical world. They are clearly divided into three parts: the blacksmith-forged top with the symbols of celestial luminaries, the chapel with the godlets who patronize all human works and concerns, and the lower part, framed by supports in the shape of a grass-snake” (Beresnevičius, 1992).
SACRED PLACES
Before starting to talk about specific sacred places, it is worth paying attention to the meanings of the word “sacred” and other derived words. Only “the Baltic and Slavic languages retained “švent-” / “swent-”, which is the reference to sacred, faith matters; the said words derived from the Indo-European parent language in other languages have not retained the reference to sacredness. <...> The second peculiarity is that during Christianization, the equivalents of “sacredness” in other languages were translated not word-for-word but by the words “švent-” / “swent-” themselves, and this shows special tradition and power of the word “sacred”, inherited from ancient times” (Beresnevičius, 2004).
All sacred places of Balts are called alka(s) (a sacrificial offering place). In Lithuania, 203 sacred places have names, there are 69 sacred sites with names in Latvia, and 7 such objects in Kaliningrad region. Of the 203 sacred places in Lithuania, 74 are mountains, 52 are fields, 32 are rivers, 15 are lakes and puddles, 11 are forests, 10 are swamps, and 9 are islands. Accordingly, Latvia has 42 mountains, 17 fields, 1 river, 2 lakes, 1 forest, 5 swamps, and 1 island. According to the types of natural objects, the old sacred places were already classified by E. Šturmas. He discussed them in the chapters “Kalnai”, “Miškai”, “Upės”, “Ežerai”, “Laukai” and “Kaimai” (“Mountains”, “Forests”, “Rivers”, “Lakes”, “Fields” and “Villages” (Vaitkevičius, 2003, p. 27). Latvian researchers divide holy places into the following types: mountains, water bodies, trees, burrows, valleys, fields, stones, stone statues (Urtāns, 1978).
A. Grinbergas (Grīnbergs, 2012) provides the following classification of Latvian sacred sites:
Sites in the form of relief (hills, valleys and the like).
Rocks, caves, burrows.
Hydrological objects or water bodies (rivers, streams, springs, lakes, ponds, swamps and the like).
Stones.
Trees, woods, forests.
Stone statues.
Detailed descriptions of all sacred sites in Latvia are provided by A. Grinbergas (Grīnbergs, 2012) in his study “Zemgales reģiona senās kulta vietas”. It is stated in “Mitologijos enciklopedija” (1999, vol. 2) that “the names of cult hills have survived to this day: Svētais, Elkus, Baznīcas kalns (holy hill, sacrificial offering hill, church hill). <...> The central cult hill in Vidzeme is Mujanu Zilais hill (blue hill), and in Latgale, it is Sauleskalns (the hill of the sun).” The largest variety is found among the ancient cult stones, of which most are foot-marked stones. They are associated with Velnias.
Ancient sacred places were traditionally important in people’s lives: there, people prayed for personal / family health and happiness, health for animals, good harvest, protection from Perkūnas and the like. It is worth paying attention to the fact that many believe that people often made sacrifices or performed religious ceremonies for a specific tree, but G. Beresnevičius states otherwise: “<...> sacred places were set up in woods, and religious rituals were performed there. That is, sacrifices were made near the tree, yet not to the tree but to Perkūnas” (Beresnevičius, 2006). Holy sites were often also visited while fulfilling a pledge of one kind or another, given in a difficult moment or after dreaming of a certain sign / inducement.
Ancient sacred places are a unique form of expression of the Baltic religion. The mythical meanings of holy sites are also related to mythical creatures such as Perkūnas, the sun, the witch and the like. There is also no doubt that the religious and social functions of sacred places in Lithuania and neighbouring countries differ. Holy places together with homesteads were set up in a specific place, often near the house; for example, small sand courts were equipped under the millstones for Pagirniai. Sacred sites were located in special places: where trees grow or are planted, stones are found, springs and streams flow. These are places where you can start a fire, concentrate, calm down, think, turn to gods, perform ceremonies, make sacrifices. There were sacred places in villages and communities too. This is evidenced by the following names: Nemakščiai near Nemakštė forest; Šventai, located at the edge of Šventinė forests; Šventupiai, located on the bank of the Šventupis; and the like. “It must be mentioned that forms of communication among the community members with a certain sacred shade such as the evening parties during holidays, during the period between Christmas and the Epiphany, sambariai or harvest festivals (composite feasts after sowing, visiting fields or harvesting) or krivūlės (meetings where community matters are discussed) also took place in the settlement itself or in the agreed place near it, in the site distinguished in one way or another” (Vaitkevičius, 2003). Regional sacred places are also found. The holy places located there are associated with monuments, complexes of residential, defensive and burial places. In addition, interregional and state holy places are also distinguished, the status of which is somewhat similar to that of regional ones. However, the establishment of these holy sites was centralised, took place along with the development and consolidation of the state ideology, carried out by the leader and his servants or appointees. The meanings of these holy sites are directly related to the content of the state religion (see Vaitkevičius, 2003 about all of it).
In summary, it can be stated that sacred places were created considering cosmogonic prototypes, combining the symbolism of the hill, tree, fire and water. The topography and symbolism of cult places only prove that those sites are perceived as sacred places of Perkūnas. True, the assumption that other gods were also worshiped there cannot be ruled out (see Mitologijos enciklopedija, 2, 1999).
BALTIC RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. THE PANTHEON
The common links between Baltic religions are evident when analysing the available knowledge of the pantheon. As it has already been mentioned, since there is no unified model of Baltic mythology, accepted by scientists, the selected aspects of Baltic mythology are briefly discussed mainly based on the research of G. Beresnevičius, N. Vėlius, N. Laurinkienė, R. Balsys, P. Šmitas, B. Meisterė and other researchers.
Here’s Dangaus Dievas, the supreme God of the Sky, is called by the same names (in Latvian, Dievs; in Old Prussian, Deywis, Deyws) just like the central god of the pantheon Perkūnas, the god of thunder (in Latvian, Perkons; in Old Prussian, Percunis). However, God of Latvians did not acquire as many features of god as the one of Lithuanians or Old Prussians.
The official Old Prussian pantheon consists of a triad: “<...> Patolas, Perkūnas, Patrimpas”. From a cosmological point of view, these are gods of the underworld, atmosphere, fertility; from a social standpoint, they are gods of oracles, warrior elite, farmers. The Old Prussian pantheon is very rational, everything is arranged so carefully, as if some primordial Dumézil follower has worked on it. This is a mechanism ready to operate. Patolas, the god of oracles and magical sovereignty, is placed at the forefront of the pantheon (let’s remember, his counterpart Teliavelis is only the third in Lithuania). This corresponds to the prevailing position of the oracles’ caste in Old Prussia. The second god (and central in the triad) Perkūnas occupies the same place in the pantheon as in cosmology – he rules the atmosphere and is the god of warriors. The third, Patrimpas, patronizes fertility – he is the sovereign of farmers and livestock breeders” (Beresnevičius, 2001; Toporov, 2000). It can be mentioned that Old Prussians, according to scientists, have no female deities at all.
The Lithuanian pantheon is arranged similarly: Andajus / Nunadievis, Perkūnas / Diviriksas, Teliavelis. It should be emphasized that Old Prussian gods ascend from the underworld towards Perkūnas, while in the Lithuanian pantheon, the other way round: from Andajus; i.e., from the sky, gods descend to the underworld where Teliavelis reigns. Based on this, it can be assumed that Lithuanians and Old Prussians had a different vision of the world.
For Latvians, the most important deity is Dangaus Tėvas (the Father of the Sky), from the matriarchy Latvians have inherited Žemės Močia (the Mother of the Earth), which was a symbol of the whole earth, especially fertility. In the long run, Žemės Močia remained only the guardian of the world of ghosts. Latvians also believe in three goddesses of fate: Laima, Dekla and Karta. The fate of the man, his animals and wealth depend on Laima. Mara has similar functions too. From the forces of nature, Latvians worshiped Perkūnas (Butkus, 1990).
When starting to talk about Lithuanian gods, it should be noted that the most important gods can be named differently even in the same context. For example, the Lithuanian goddess is called Medeina in one source, Žvorūna in another, but scholars agree that it is the same goddess. Binomination (or possession of many names) of gods is interpreted in various ways. First of all, it could have been that gods actually had several names that they were called according to different circumstances. Binomination could have also appeared due to regional distribution, where gods could have had so-called local and dialect names. However, this most likely happened due to the taboo phenomenon: the god’s name could be pronounced only in special cases or it could not be pronounced at all out of respect or for the fear of summoning him. This would explain why for example, Velnias, Perkūnas, etc. have so many different gods’ names in Lithuanian folklore (more about this in Mitologijos enciklopedija, 2, 1999; Račiūnaitė, Senvaitytė, Vaicekauskas, 2001).
It is worth paying attention to the lists of gods in the early sources. Describing year 1252, Ipatijus’ annal names Nunadievis, Teliavelis, Diviriksas, the god of Zuikiai and Medeina; further, (writing about year 1258), Andajus and Diviriksas are mentioned. In the chronicle of J. Malala (around 1261), the following gods are named: Andajus, Perkūnas, Žvorūna, Teliavelis. Basically, it is agreed that Andajus and Nunadievis, mentioned the first everywhere, must have been the highest Lithuanian god – Dangaus Dievas (the God of the Sky); Perkūnas, the same Diviriksas; Teliavelis, the god close to Velnias; while Žvorūna must have coincided with Medeina (cf. Beresnevičius, 2004). The supreme gods are usually associated with the sky, the light of the sky. However, god cannot be considered a proper name of one sacred being, because any male deity can be called this way (cf. Perkūnas, Mėnuo, Dievaitis vėjas, etc.). The same should be stated about goddess, the name of a female deity. Various sources mention theonyms that could have been used to refer to the supreme Lithuanian and Old Prussian god: Andajus, Nunadievis, Teliavelis, Ukapirmas, Prakorimas, Auxtheias Vissagistis, Praamžius (more about gods see Balsys, 2006; Račiūnaitė, Senvaitytė, Vaicekauskas, 2001).
DIEVAS (GOD)
The supreme person of the Baltic pantheon is God. The Balts’ Dangaus Dievas has retained a number of old Indo-European peculiarities: he lives in the sky, has created the world, established the principle of justice in it, and set the norms of morals and morality. It is acknowledged that Dangaus Dievas is “the primordial creator and supervisor of the existential order and life norms of the universe, who punishes and rewards according to merits; in his name one swears, makes peace, wishes well-being, prosperity, health; asks to reconcile thieves, protect animals, fields from diseases and predatory animals” (Balsys, 2006). Now he lives in the sky where summer is eternal, where birds hibernate. God descends to the world rarely, he usually knocks as a grey-bearded old man to check if people have not forgotten the norms of morality and justice, which he created (see in Lietuva iki Mindaugo, 2003 for more details). In folklore, God is depicted in a household environment reflecting the realities of ordinary people’s everyday life: he fires the stove, smears his face, goes to people, appears as a guest, asks for a place to stay overnight and the like. In other words, he behaves like an ordinary elderly person; this way it is attempted to get closer to an environment understandable to peasants. However, the grandfather god is extremely powerful. One drop fell on the ground when God was washing himself and a man appeared. God gets hurt by a stone and from then on, stones do not grow anymore. God visits people: he rewards those who receive him nicely, punishes those who alienate him: he turns them into pigs, dogs, geese (cf. Beresnevičius, 2001).
There is no equivalent of Andajus in the Old Prussian pantheon, although the Old Prussian god lists of the 16th century mention the first god Okopirmas. “Ocopirmas is pushed out of the operating pantheon because of his strong deus otiosus traits; if he is the primary god, God the Creator, who has withdrawn from the world, indeed his cult has no tangible meaning. Old Prussians appear here as religious rationalists. In the case of Lithuanians, Andajus / Nunadievis remains in the place that belongs to him” (Beresnevičius, 2001).
The Latvian Debesu Tēvs (the Father of the Sky) is depicted almost analogously to the Lithuanian one. He is an old, kind-hearted man, dressed in white or green, who owns an exemplary farm. In fairy tales, he goes to people as a beggar: he rewards the good and punishes the bad (cf. Butkus, 1990).
PERKŪNAS (GOD OF THUNDER)
Perkūnas is the most important Lithuanian god. Perkūnas used to be called by various names (Dundulis, Griaustinis, Tarškulis and others), because there was a certain taboo regarding his name. His characteristic description is Dievaitis (the son of Dievas). Although Dangaus Dievas is nominally the supreme person, Perkūnas is nevertheless the central figure of the pantheon. The main temples, sacred places in Lithuania are built for Perkūnas, or he is simply the central figure associated with fire and the so-called “fire cult”. In folklore, Perkūnas is depicted as militant, acute in character, armed, constantly fighting with Velnias and evil spirits. Often depicted as a grumpy red-bearded man, armed with lightning and axes, riding a chariot pulled by goats, the rattle of whose wheels causes thunder. Perkūnas patronises the air, lives in the clouds between the sky and the earth, controls thunder and lightnings. This way, Perkūnas is inserted into the centre of world creation and becomes the guardian of the atmosphere. It is worth emphasizing that God is respectively associated with the sky; while Velnias, with the earth, underworld, and water. Perkūnas also patronises fertility; therefore, when it rumbles for the first time in spring, grass starts to sprout and the entire nature recovers. Another function of Perkūnas is maintenance of justice. He not only persecutes Velnias but also keeps order established by God (for details, see Beresnevičius, 2001; Račiūnaitė, Senvaitytė, Vaicekauskas, 2001).
G. Beresnevičius (2004) names and discusses several variations of the relationships between God and Perkūnas. God and Perkūnas are said to be close in hierarchy or even equal. Perkūnas, being very powerful, close to God, could have once ruled the world and this way rise to the centre of the pantheon. Perkūnas is also perceived as God’s servant (cf. “Perkūnas is God’s servant, and Velnias is his enemy”). This implies that Perkūnas was created by God (cf. “Perkūnas was created by God to strike devils”). Perkūnas is taken to heaven by God. This rather common motive shows that God called Perkūnas to heaven to catch devils. In other words, Perkūnas is considered an ally of God, a reliable partner. It is also believed that Perkūnas may be the God’s son. When it comes to Perkūnas, the combination of words Perkūnas Dievaitis or simply Dievaitis is often used. Still, Dievaitis should probably be used to name the God’s son; thus, tabooisation of Perkūnas’ origin perfectly fits with this image (Beresnevičius, 2004).
Latvian Perkūnas performs quite similar functions as the Lithuanian one. The main function of Latvian Perkūnas is to promote fertility. An important phenomenon is the storm, which is more or less connected with all the functions of Perkūnas. True, Latvian Perkūnas has a family: a wife, 5 sons, a daughter, even a daughter-in-law is named. All of them help father Perkūnas to take care of fertility. “It is likely that the kin of Perkūnas appeared from the poetic differentiation of expressions denoting the phenomenon of the storm and on the basis of the similarity to sons of God and daughters of the sun – beings of ancient Indo-European origin with possible parallels in Lithuanian, Greek, Indian mythology” (Meisterė, 1995). Latvian Perkūnas, like Lithuanian one, persecutes Velnias. The clash between Perkūnas and Velnias is an old motive found in the myths of many nations. Latvian Perkūnas performs important work for human physical and moral well-being. It is worth noting at this point that Perkūnas takes care of human health, Perkūnas is often called to help convict the exploiter master, Perkūnas can strike down dishonest people – liars, envious people, thieves. Perkūnas is often understood and seen as the wish-fulfiller of the Christian God. Due to his choleric temperament, the blacksmith of the sky was also considered to be the cause of anger and discord (see Meisterė, 1995; Butkus, 1990 on all this).
VELNIAS (GOD OF THE UNDERWORLD)
Lithuanian Velnias is associated with animals, the dead, underworld, underground treasures as well as with magic, oracles and transformations. In legends, the Lithuanian folkloric Velnias creates the world together with God. Velnias seeks to distort and corrupt God’s creations, which he partially manages to do. All evil, obscene and inconvenient matters on earth are explained by the intervention of Velnias. God creates animals that are useful to humans, while Velnias creates harmful, completely useless things (Vėlius, 1987).
Usually, the abode of Velnias is associated with low, wet places, swamps, lakes, although it can also be seen in the forest. On the other hand, Velnias can also appear in the air, fly; then, he is identified with a whirlwind and windstorm. In legends, Velnias is associated with stones (he carries them, sows them), certain trees (a birch, a fir) as well as with the lower part of a tree, a hollow, a stump. Velnias is often related to animals, especially horses, oxen, and cows. It should be noted that he can turn into any beast. Velnias can often be found in the women’s company too. At village youth parties or weddings, he invites girls who are of great interest to him to dance. Often Velnias appears when the person is dying; he seizes his soul. It is not for nothing that Velnias, who has experienced the influence of Christianity, is called the ruler of hell. Velnias controls both life and death functions, in mythology he is a mediator (about all this see Beresnevičius, 2001).
The relationships between God and Velnias in folklore are rather complicated. The opposition between God and Velnias is unquestionable, but God is passive in this opposition, he does not persecute Velnias. G. Beresnevičius (2004) distinguishes 3 versions of God-Velnias relationships: God and Velnias are brothers, Velnias is God’s assistant, and Velnias is God’s adversary. The first version is the most interesting. Legends mention that Velnias was even considered older than God; thus, God and Velnias are brothers; despite constant conflicts, both gods get along. The second version is grounded on the fact that the conflict between God and Velnias arose from primordiality; i.e., precedence in the creation of the world, and in the mythological present, it evolved into the conflict between Perkūnas and Velnias. However, God and Velnias do not enter into a direct conflict, which shows their family closeness (Beresnevičius, 2004).
G. Beresnevičius (2004) discusses the vicissitudes of Perkūnas-Velnias relationships. The origin and result of the discord of gods is constant struggle. This struggle has the features of a cosmogonic, primordial fight. “It can be reasonably stated that the fight, feud between Perkūnas and Velnias is very old, it started at the times of creation of the world. True, it is not clear whether it is fully primordial or it started, let it be in cosmogonic, but in time. Perkūnas and Velnias are an oppositional couple, but mythological oppositionality is not necessarily realized through fighting – it can be secret, not actualized” (Beresnevičius, 2004).
In Latvia, among spirits, Velnias is also considered an enemy and a villain of people. Often in Latvian fairy tales, Velnias does not represent the principle of evil. In his struggle with God, he does nothing wrong, while God constantly insidiously deceives him. Such motives have not been recorded in both Lithuanian fairy tales and mythology. Latvians also have another word to name Velnias – Jods. “Jods is said to come from the Lithuanian word “juodas” (black), because the black colour in Christian symbolism means darkness and evil, and Velnias himself is called “der schwarze Mann” (“the black man”). However, Estonian juudas and Finnish juutas also mean Velnias. In addition, Estonian juudas is also the deity of the northern lights, just like with Latvians. <...> Jods could be Judas taken over in prehistoric times, mixed with “the black man” and partially connected with the Lithuanian word “juodas” (black) according to folk etymology.” (Šmitas, 2004). Jupis, Nīkšķis and Pūķis are also known as other names of Velnias. Pūķis can be grown up, acquired, and he appears in the form of a cat, snake, mouse, toad, and some birds. Pūķis can be shot only with a silver or golden bullet (see Šmitas, 2004).
The Old Prussian Patulas or Patolas represents the Lithuanian Velnias; he is the god of the underworld and death. Patulas is depicted as an elderly man with a long grey beard, deathly pale, with his head wrapped in a white cloth. Patulas is usually named as the first God of the triad or the chief God of Old Prussians (Beresnevičius, 2001). It is worth noting that white is the colour of the Old Prussian god Patulas. White colour belongs to the world of the dead, but for Balts it was a feature of afterlife world in general (see Beresnevičius, 2009). R. Balsys (2006), quoting S. Grunau, states that “Patulas (Patollo) was the God’s oldest son of Bruttians. This was a horrid god of the night, who ghosted in homes, especially in the manors of nobles. First of all, he rampaged if someone did not listen to the chief oracle’s orders, and he used to go to scare them at night, until he would scare them so much that the person would die. <...> He was the god of the dead. If someone died, and the survivors were stingy with sacrifices to gods and tribute ceremonies for vaidilučiai (oracles), then he would come to the house of the deceased and ghost at night” (Balsys, 2006).
The Old Prussian god Patulas and Patrimpas form an opposition pair. Patrimpas is the Old Prussian god of fertility, of flowing waters and all kinds of luck. He is usually depicted as a beardless young man (Patulas, the opposite of Patrimpas, is an elderly man with a long grey beard), a jovial god of crops with a wreath of ears. Patrimpas is often called the god of luck (Beresnevičius, 2001). R. Balsys states that Patrimpas “used to determine luck in the battle and in other matters. If someone had to pay respect to that Patrimpas, vaidilutis (the chief oracle) had to fast for three days and sleep on pure ground, and first of all, to burn incense on the fire that is burned with wax” (Balsys, 2006).
THE PROBLEM OF GODS’ SPOUSES
Scientific literature draws attention to the fact that in Lithuanian mythology, all 3 gods – Dievas, Perkūnas and Velnias – have no spouses. “This is shocking at first glance, because one or two gods may not have a spouse, but here, the three main gods of the Lithuanian worldview, which we can trace, in corpore do not have spouses. It is not for no reason. It is not a coincidence – three coincidences are already a law. Especially since these gods are not single, unmarried, infertile. There are some stories and intrigues behind the absence of the woman, true, in a very distant background. And the three of them should not be called bachelors or unmarried – they just do not have women” (Mitologijos enciklopedija, 2, 1999).
The problem of the God’s spouse. In etiological and mythological legends, God does not have a spouse. He alone visits people, teaches and punishes them; he alone created the world; true, with the help of Velnias. “It can be assumed that this is because God embodies the very primordial principle, he is the beginning of beginnings, and no other beginning can be nearby” (Beresnevičius, 2004). True, in the legend in which the Virgin Mary asks God where Perkūnas came from, there was no straight and clear answer, only a strange refusal to answer. “Probably, at this point, we either face some sublimated mystery of the life of gods or simply the influence of Christianity, which eliminated the former spouse of God” (Beresnevičius, 2004).
The problem of the spouse of Perkūnas. The same problems remain in the case of Perkūnas. True, folklore does not name a clear spouse, but sometimes Perkūnas is called a widower, sometimes it is suspected that his wife was torn apart and kidnapped by Velnias; several children and family of Perkūnas are mentioned; however, Perkūnas is often associated with Laumė (a woodland fae-goddess): “the image of Laumė has features of the once wife of Perkūnas, who was banished to the earth; the traces of Laumė still remain both in the sky (atmosphere) and on the earth; the images of Laumė and Perkūnas are intertwined in the image of an unhappy marriage” (Mitologijos enciklopedija, 2, 1999). The connection between Perkūnas and Žemė (the goddess of the earth) can be envisaged. It is not directly mentioned, but such moments can be detected: “In the spring, when Perkūnas thunders for the first time, the grass will grow quickly because thunder shakes the earth. It seems that the analogue of sexual relations should be envisaged here, especially since Slavs identified lightning with the phallus of Griausmavaldis (controller of thunder); and rain, with his fructifying seed falling from above” (Beresnevičius, 2004).
The affairs of the spouse of Velnias are also not entirely clear. It has already been mentioned that Velnias is often seen in the companies of girls. Sometimes a girl gets married to Velnias, sometimes she is kidnapped, but this only shows that he does not have a real spouse. Among the mythical creatures, Laumė is considered the closest to Velnias. Their characters are similar, both do similar jobs, although they have divided them into male and female areas.
To sum up, it can be stated that “both Perkūnas and Velnias have love affairs with Laumė, but they do not have a happy ending. God’s romantic relationships are strongly tabooed, sublimated, and we cannot find the name of the goddess; however, it would not be implausible that it is Žemė or Žemyna. It should be added that Laumė cannot be ruled out here either. However, we can see very clearly that all three gods were married or tried to marry or loved, but now; i.e., in the mythical present, in the mythical present time, they are unmarried and live alone” (Beresnevičius, 2004).
It should be noted that neither Latvian nor Old Prussian sources raise the question of the spouses of gods.
Source of information: project of Latvia-Lithuania cross-border cooperation programme 2007-2013 “Baltic Culture Park” (Šiauliai Region Development Agency).